00:02:21	I'm ruben martinez, and these are my twin daughters, ruby graciela garcia martinez and lucia simone garcia I was born in this country, and I'm the son and grandson of immigrants from mexico and central america.
00:02:37	But it's just a bit much to call myself a mexican-salvadoran maybe that's why we hear the term "latino" a lot but what about my their mother and my wife, angela garcia, is from new mexico, and her roots are native american, spanish, there is no pithy identifier for ruby and lucia.
00:03:03	Ey are simply mixed.
00:03:05	Or, to use a word in spanish for people of mixed ancestry, they are mestizas.
00:03:17	The mixing of ethnicity that is ruby and lucia's heritage began during one of the most dynamic eras of history, when europeans first made contact with the native peoples of the americas.
00:03:32	The collision of those two worlds would famously result in the conquest of the new but to understand the deeper consequences, it's essential to take a new look at what those two worlds were really like and how they were changed by contact, and what it means today to live in both of them at the same time.
00:04:16	Sometimes children get curious about their family tree.
00:04:20	Where did their parents come what were their grandparents or great-grandparents like?
00:04:27	But what if circumstances erased the story of one side of the family?
00:04:33	Then the desire to know can go beyond mere curiosity and become an urgent need.
00:04:45	That's a little bit what it's been like down through the years to be a mestizo, to have some ancestors native to europe and some native to the americas.
00:04:57	The story of the european side of the family tree before contact has long been widely but it has taken far longer for the true story of the peoples of the new world to become accepted by popular instead, for the last 500 years, the conventional narrative has been that the americas were filled with backwards peoples who were easily defeated by a vastly superior european culture.
00:05:33	But finally, in recent years, as more and more of us have felt compelled to explore all of our roots, our view of the new world has started to change.
00:05:44	Take, for example, machu picchu, the spiritual retreat of the inca.
00:05:56	When I was a child, there was popular speculation that machu picchu, and other wonders like it in the ancient americas, were designed by aliens, so great was the disbelief that indigenous americans were capable of such feats.
00:06:10	But now we know that machu picchu and great south american metropolises like cuzco and cajamarca were indeed the work of the kechua indians, who still live and thrive carlos ipaz sanchez is the director of the peruvian cultural center in cuzco.
00:06:29	>> [Speaking spanish] >> machu picchu was built with a standard of precision much greater than european artisans at the time were and, thanks to discoveries like it, scholars have long known that before contact, south america and north america were home to some of the greatest cultures the inca empire was far larger than any in europe, stretching 2,000 miles from modern-day colombia a vast network of stone roads snaked through jungles and over mountain passes to bring the tribute and labor that the inca coerced from conquered peoples back to their capital in present-day peru.
00:07:58	In central mexico, a major civilization had thrived at the same time a following in its footsteps came the mayans, with their advanced mathematics and writing, and the mochica, leaders of the triple alliance we once called the aztecs.
00:08:15	The mochica capital of tenochtitlan was home to 200,000 people and cleaner than any city in europe.
00:08:25	Still farther north, there were a host of other civilizations, including the pueblo tribes with their planned communities built around one of the most sophisticated social structures in the world, and the great cultures of the mississippi river valley, who were among the most successful and productive farmers on earth.
00:08:47	None of this means that these cultures were better than the cultures of europe, nor worse, but simply different.
00:09:04	One of the most important differences was that the greatest advances of new world culture did not involve inventing new machines, but were instead driven by the intelligent use and management of the natural environment.
00:09:21	For instance, new world inventors made a major advance in perhaps the major industry of the age, textile manufacturing, by creating a red so true that europeans swooned for it at first sight.
00:09:38	In the old world, the textile industry dominated the economy.
00:09:42	But almost all of the red cloth it produced was really dirty dye that could produce true red was so rare and expensive in europe that only the rich and powerful wore red.
00:09:59	But people in the americas had figured out how to mass produce a true red dye by growing and harvesting cochineal, an insect which lives on prickly pear cactus.
00:10:13	It was such an important breakthrough that europeans would one day rank it only behind gold and silver in value.
00:10:23	Antonio ruiz gonzalez and his family still produce textiles using cochineal dye.
00:10:31	>> Hispanic people taught us these bugs grow up on the prickly pear they live there, absorbing the juice that's why the natives--or the hispanic people, also know them by " >> the discovery of true red gave birth to a large network of small entrepreneurs who produced the dye and then sold it to textile manufacturers, painters, and other artisans along trade routes that stretched for thousands of miles.
00:11:11	Those traders also sold a vastly more important set of inventions made possible by the talent of the peoples of the new world for managing nature, new kinds of food.
00:11:25	At this botanical garden in oaxaca, a botanist is growing a weed called it's a very special weed, the point of origin of one of the great food revolutions in history.
00:11:37	This is the tiny seed pod of the teosinte plant.
00:11:42	Many centuries ago, indigenous americans succeeded in turning this into maize, corn.
00:11:54	Today, many botanists consider the transformation of teosinte into corn the most important feat of genetic engineering in human history.
00:12:18	At the tortilleria itanoni in oaxaca, tortillas are made from some of the earliest varieties of corn still what you might call heirloom tortillas.
00:12:32	Armando ramirez leyva is an agronomist and the owner of itanoni.
00:12:39	>> [Speaking spanish] >> by weight, more corn is harvested today than any other crop in the world.
00:13:16	And when corn was first introduced as a staple crop in the ancient americas, it made tremendous population growth possible from the mayan peninsula all the way to what is today the united states and canada.
00:13:32	In fact, some scholars today think that there may have been millions more people living in the americas before columbus arrived than was once thought.
00:13:44	Those people lived not just on corn, but also on a host of other crops like potatoes and tomatoes that they were the first to domesticate.
00:13:57	That's why other scholars believe that the average person in the americas might have been better fed than the average they might also have been healthier because there were no pigs, goats, there was also no smallpox or measles or similar diseases that people on other continents caught what it all before contact between the new world and the old, you could well have been better off if you were an average person in the americas than an average person in europe.
00:14:33	It's a revelation that triggers an entirely new way of looking at the new world.
00:14:41	Now let's take a new look at the old world.
00:15:08	>> The old world.
00:15:10	What was it like before columbus one way to answer that question is to take a look at the other momentous events that took place in spain in 1492.
00:15:23	During that epic year, the wars of religion which had plagued spain for centuries came to a climax in a dramatic christian and how the christians dealt withhose they had defeated would foreshadow much of what would happen in the new world.
00:15:43	[Choral singing begins] >> the leaders of the christian triumph were the most famous royal couple in history, ferdinand and isabella.
00:16:19	This is the capilla real, the royal tomb, which sits inside the cathedral of granada in southern spain.
00:16:29	Here you can see the caskets that hold the remains of the man and woman on whom the pope bestowed the unprecedented " today, they remain larger than life figures because of their role in the discovery of the new but ferdinand and isabella chose to be buried in granada beca muslim kingdom in spain.
00:17:06	For 800 years, muslims played a key role in spanish culture, and are responsible for many of its greatest achievements, including granada's alhambra.
00:17:22	For centuries, the christians of spain had lived in the shadow and even after they were able to push the muslims to the south and establish several independent christian kingdoms, each of those kingdoms jealously guarded its independence from the others.
00:17:39	But that all changed with ferdinand and isabella.
00:17:45	By calling for a holy war against their common enemy, the muslims, ferdinand and isabella succeeded in taking the reins of power throughout christian spain.
00:17:54	Then, in the name of god and king, the christians conquered granada.
00:18:02	In an elaborate surrender ceremony, the muslim ruler handed the king and queen the keys to the alhambra.
00:18:10	And in return, isabella and ferdinand promised in writing that the muslims would always be able to practice but just a few years later, they broke their promise and ordered the muslims of granada to either convert to christianity or leave spain.
00:18:30	Rafael peinado santaella is a historian at the university of granada.
00:18:36	>> [Speaking spanish] >> the king and queen took another momentous step in 1492 in pursuit of religious unity.
00:19:18	They ordered the jews of spain, some of whose ancestors had lived here for over 700 years, to either convert to christianity or leave even those jews who converted to christianity and stayed in spain were under suspicion, with the officers of the spanish inquisition constantly rooting out and torturing those jewish christians whose conversions were suspected of being insincere.
00:19:49	But even if their conversion was deemed sincere, christians who had muslim and jewish ancestors were trted as inferior to spaniards who had christian ancestors.
00:20:03	It was the birth of one of the most important mechanisms the spanish would use to control other peoples, a caste-like system which banished some to the fringes based on their ancestry, while reserving power for a supposedly pure-blooded christian elite.
00:20:28	Isabella and ferdinand had discovered that religion was a very useful tool for controlling a growing empire just as their empire was about to grow like no other in history.
00:20:51	In march of 1493, ferdinand and isabella received incredible columbus had returned from his voyage with word that he had discovered an entire new world.
00:21:06	We're used to thinking about how that incredible event would transform life in the americas.
00:21:13	But we're not so used to inking about how it changed in fact, new world inventions, commodities, and treasure radically transformed life in europe.
00:21:27	First and foremost was new world gold and silver were an incredible stimulus to the european economy.
00:21:40	But even more important to average europeans was the way new world discoveries changed what they ate.
00:21:50	This is the kitchen of the corral de la moreria, a restaurant in downtown madrid.
00:21:58	James amelay is a historian at the autonomous university of madrid.
00:22:03	>> You know, it's amazing the amount of food the new world provided the old.
00:22:07	Corn, tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, different types of beans, sweet potatoes, chocolate, peanuts, and many other things.
00:22:19	And there's also items like sugar, which most europeans weren't able to afford until it began to be produced in mass quantities in the americas.
00:22:27	In the end, this may have been the biggest transfer of food in the world's history.
00:22:31	Many of the things that we think of as ordinary food on both sides of the atlantic emerged if you don't believe me, think of italy without tomato sauce, belgium without chocolate, spain without gazpacho, and france and everyone else without french fries.
00:22:47	>> Europe also picked up what we now think of as a bad habit from the americas, with the tobacco plant domesticated by new world smokers eventually becoming one of europe's most popular imports.
00:23:03	And then there was the sublime.
00:23:07	Art historians consider this painting by rembrandt one of the high points of european but recent testing has revealed that the brilliant red which rembrandt used to bring to life the dress of the jewish bride was made possible by cochineal dye imported from the new world.
00:23:31	But the new world import that fascinated isabella and ferdinand by far the most was one that columbus himself brought back, human beings from the americas.
00:23:45	For a regime used to dividing people into categories based on their ancestry, the peoples of the new world presented an astonishing challenge.
00:23:56	Which category did they fit in?
00:24:01	Columbus thought he knew they fit into the same category that europeans put africans, the category of people fit only for slavery.
00:24:13	Many wealthy spaniards, including the king and queen, owned african slaves.
00:24:20	And columbus was convinced there was a huge fortune to be made shipping the indigenous peoples of the americas to europe and selling them at a cheaper price than the africans.
00:24:35	[Choral singing] >> but isabella stunned columbus by threatening to put to death anyone who enslaved the indians.
00:24:51	The queen ordered columbus to instead, [speaking spanish].
00:25:00	"Treat the indians very well and lovingly, and abstain from doing them any injury.
00:25:06	And arrange that both peoples hold much conversation, each serving the other to the best " the deeply religious isabella was convinced that indigenous americans were a simple people who deserved to be offered eternal salvation.
00:25:29	Her conviction was supported by some of her closest advisors, who believed the discovery of the new world fulfilled key prophecies in the bible.
00:25:38	And once its inhabitants were converted to christianity, jesus would return in a blaze of glory and the world would end.
00:25:50	Yet, for all that, isabella was also a savvy ruler who knew that she had no large army to send to the new world.
00:25:59	And giving columbus and those who would follow in his footsteps permission to enslave the native peoples and plunder their gold and silver was the easiest way for isabella to finance the expansion of her empire.
00:26:15	Consuelo varela is a historian at the university of seville.
00:26:20	>> [Speaking spanish] >> god or gold?
00:27:07	It is a choice that many great powers throughout history the choice the rulers of spain made would shape their legacy in the new world.
00:27:30	Contact with europe.
00:27:33	What did it mean to the new it meant the fall of the mochica capital of tenochtitlan to cortez and the fall of the inca empire and it meant the deaths of millions from diseases to which they had no immunity.
00:28:02	But the part of the story that's been missing is that new world culture did not disappear as a result.
00:28:09	Indigenous americans would continue to be just as powerful a force as the spanish in shaping the culture of the americas right down to the present day.
00:28:28	Oaxaca in southern mexico is one of those places where it's possible to get a hint of what the new world was like take a look around and you'll see that indigenous history did not end with the conquest.
00:28:51	The family of [indistinct] has lived in oaxaca for more than 500 years.
00:28:58	[Both speaking spanish] >> once you see how strong native culture still is today, something essential becomes 400 years ago, it was powerful enough to transform the culture the europeans brought with them.
00:30:22	Take one of the most momentous issues of all, religion.
00:30:29	In response to isabella's call to convert the peoples of the americas, wave after wave of catholic missionaries flooded the new world.
00:30:41	How did the indigenous americans react toward their would-be saviors?
00:30:47	Well, the peoples of the new world had their own deeply-held the mochica, for instance, treasured their relationship with the fertility goddess tonantzin, a relationship they were not willing to abandon, as can be seen in the story " this hillside overlooking mexico city is called el cerro del tepeyac, and it is considered one of the most sacred spaces in the americas.
00:31:21	According to tradition, juan diego was an early indian convert who, in the winter of 1531, heard a woman's voice calling him from this hill.
00:31:31	She had indigenous features and spoke in nahuatl, the pre-columbian language she had a serene countenance and was outlined by a luminescent glow.
00:31:42	[Choral chanting] >> to mexicans like enrique fernandez, who like the vast majority of his countrymen has both native and spanish heritage, the fact that our lady of guadalupe would appear to an indian still has tremendous significance.
00:32:05	>> [Speaking spanish] [singing in spanish] >> but there is another story behind the sry of our lady the way that she is depicted when she appeared to juan diego is, of course, very much like the way the mochica depicted tonantzin.
00:33:04	So how did she become the most important catholic icon maybe there was a bit of negotiation going on behind the scenes.
00:33:15	The missionaries were facing the colossal challenge of converting the native peoples.
00:33:21	And it must have been a lot easier to convince indigenous mexicans to join if they were allowed to keep worshipping the same goddess they'd worshipped all along.
00:33:32	However it came about, the inspiring account of juan diego encountering the virgin in the form of an indigenous goddess came to serve, as the centuries passed, as a kind of creation story for the catholic church but it is also a quintessentially mestizo story, in which catholic and indigenous spiritual traditions became so thoroughly fused that it's difficult to tell where one begins and the other ends.
00:34:04	Europeans tried to impose not just their religion, but also their bodies on the peoples of the new world.
00:34:13	Sexual violence against native women by spanish men was common during the conquest.
00:34:20	And when the fighting was over, the almost total absence of spanish women in the new world led some conquistadors to seek unions with native noble maria elena martinez is the author of genealogical fictions.
00:34:39	>> Many spaniards during those first few decades that followed the fall of tenochtitlan or cuzco became wealthy as a result of these unions.
00:34:50	Um, these unions also helped to consolidate spanish colonial rule because how do you create an empire thousands of miles away without a standing army?
00:35:03	Well, you promote kinship ties between descendants of the indigenous nobility and spanish because that is going to produce a population of mixed ancestry that is going to tend to identify with spanish ways and this is the strategy of the spanish it orders that the children of these unions live in spanish households and be raised in spanish ways.
00:35:33	>> This is the convent of santa clara in cuzco, peru.
00:35:38	Because it is palm sunday, the community is being allowed inside the convent to celebrate.
00:35:49	But as the members of their order have done for nearly 500 years, the nuns of santa clara remain cloistered, hidden behind a screen from the outside world.
00:36:02	This typical spanish-style convent was built just 20 years after the conquistador francisco pizarro and his men first arrived in south america.
00:36:13	But there was nothing typical about the first novices they were the first daughters born of encounters between spanish men and inca women.
00:36:26	Sister maria isabel tapia is the mother superior of santa clara.
00:36:33	>> [Speaking spanish] [nuns reciting in spanish] >> for a girl to have both a spanish and an indigenous parent was such a rare thing at first that there was no clear way to identify such a child.
00:37:04	Then, some people started using the word mestiza, spanish " since the conquistadors of peru were uncertain what role mestizas would play in the new society, the convent of santa clara served as a place it also helped fulfill isabella's edict to convert the population to catholicism.
00:37:28	When they reached adulthood, some of those mestizas became nuns.
00:37:36	But many other mestizas left the convent and, once outside the control of church and crown, began having children of their some with spaniards, some with mestizos, and some with native men.
00:37:54	Soon, the very mixing that the spanish thought would increase their authity threatened to destroy it.
00:38:02	As late as 1570, there were only 25,000 spanish households in the entire new world.
00:38:10	No more than the population of one large european city sprinkled throughout an entire with a vastly greater native population already here, the spanish were in danger of being demographically swallowed whole.
00:38:30	Desperate to preserve their wealth, power, and identity, the spanish took a page from how muslims and jews were treated in spain.
00:38:40	They created a new world caste system.
00:38:45	The sistema de castas was a complex system of ethnic classification, one that would inspire casta paintings like these, which helped keep track of where each person in the new world ranked in the system.
00:39:02	Pure-blooded spaniards, of course, were in the top below them were castizas, who had one mestiza parent and one spanish parent, and thus then came the mestizas, who were 50% a spanish writer from the 18th century described how the casta system worked.
00:39:32	"Nia el indio, nia el neno, neither the indian nor negro is equal in quality to the spaniard.
00:39:41	However, if a mixed-blood is the offspring of a spaniard and an indian, it is possible for the stigma to disappear after three generations because, according to the system, a spaniard and an indian produce a mestizo, a mestizo and a spaniard, a castizo, and a castizo " >> so what did these terms mean?
00:40:13	Uh, what did they mean socially?
00:40:14	Well, it could determine whether you could be a priest, whether you could enter the university, whether you could enter religious guilds, uh, whether you could enter certain religious orders, whether you in other words, the terms had actual taken as a whole, um, they were meant to create the society--uh, this hierarchical society based on ancestry, based on--on blood.
00:40:44	>> The caste system also had to account for an entirely different group of people whose ancestors came from an entirely different branch of the mestizo family tree, the africans.
00:41:00	[Rooster crows] not long after they arrived in the new world, the spanish began bringing african slaves with them to work in the ports and as ever more native peoples succumbed to disease, the spanish forced ever more africans to sail for the new world.
00:41:21	This village in the mountains above the mexican port of veracruz is called corralillo.
00:41:26	500 Years after the first african slaves were brought to mexico, their descendants still live here.
00:41:35	>> [Playing trumpet] >> well-known musician juan carreto martinez was born when he thinks about his heritage, he remembers what a famous black poet said centuries ago when someone hurled the word "african" at him as an insult.
00:41:57	>> [Speaking spanish] [playing trumpet] >> among the many contributions black mexicans made to new world culture was their music.
00:42:33	Take the danzon.
00:42:34	Its roots are in africa, it blossomed in the caribbean, and then it was transformed into a uniquely mexican genre that remains popular today.
00:42:44	[Music playing] free blacks from north africa participated alongside the spanish in the conquest of the americas, some as conquistadors themselves.
00:43:00	And africans made vital contributions in every sphere of life in the new world.
00:43:08	But as the spanish imported more and more slaves, they began to associate all people of african ancestry with slavery, and thus placed them at the bottom of the caste system.
00:43:25	But that categorization couldn't hold for long, since africans too began having children with spaniards and with castizos and with mestizos and with indigenous americans.
00:43:45	And it was this mixing that doomed the sistema de castas to failure, because its sheer complexity eventually made it impossible to keep track of who was who.
00:43:58	>> With time, as more castas reproduce with each other, it becomes harder and harder to determine one's proportion of spanish, indigenous, it becomes less and less feasible, and that's very clear by the 18th century.
00:44:14	So at the time when many, many more categories surface, which is the 18th century, and when the casta paintings emerge, is precisely the moment when the system has become unfeasible.
00:44:30	>> For the spanish, the uncomfortable truth was that though they had supposedly discovered the new world, there were so many other people here that the dream of remaking it in the image of spain was doomed to failure.
00:44:46	But that other spanish ambition, to acquire as much new world gold as possible, was meeting with far more success.
00:45:06	In 1517, charles v, isabella and ferdinand's grandson, became the king because of marriages between the royal families of europe, charles was also the ruler of much of the rest running this vast empire required enormous amounts of money, and the belief that "neither the indian nor the negro is equal in quality to the spaniard" played an essential role in acquiring it.
00:45:40	By the first years of charles' reign, the spanish had plundered more than 32 tons of gold from the palaces and temples of the great indigenous american civilizations and shipped it back to europe with the justification that it was their natural right as a superior and when that mountain of treasure had been spent, the spanish began forcing the native peoples and african slaves to mine many more tons of gold and silver, which was then shipped from the americas to the port of seville in spain.
00:46:20	This is the guadalquivir river flowing through the spanish city of seville on its way imagine that today all the oil tankers sailing from the middle east were allowed to unload only at a single port, then consider the strategic importance of such a place, and you begin to get an idea of the role seville played in the 16th century.
00:46:44	Carlos gonzalez sanchez is a historian at the university of seville.
00:46:51	>> [Speaking spanish] >> this transfer of hundreds of billions in today's dollars from the new world to the old would prove to be one of the most influential events you could call it, quite literally, the birth and then, as now, globalization had its downside.
00:47:44	Flush with new world treasure, charles became what we might today call irrationally exuberant and began spending even more than he was taking in on an epic series of religious wars, pitting catholics against muslims and protestants.
00:48:03	As a result, charles went deep into debt and became desperate for a new way to leverage all of the gold and silver he would receive in the future from the americas.
00:48:16	Necessity was the mother of invention of the [indistinct] the world's first interest-paying government bond and the ancestor of one of the key engines of the modern american economy, the treasury bonds like this one completely transformed banking, lending, and investing.
00:48:36	But the only reason european bankers were willing to risk buying the bonds was because they were secured by new world gold and silver.
00:48:46	And thus, it was the sweat, blood, and industry of the peoples of the new world that was financing the rise of capitalism in europe as well as spain's role as the world's only superpower.
00:49:02	>> [Speaking spanish] >> as charles saw it, the one essential function of the new world was to keep sending him gold and silver so he could continue to defend the catholic but he was about to be confronted by a man with an entirely different vision of the new world, bartolome de las casas.
00:50:02	Bartolome de las casas was born in the great trading center his own father had sailed with columbus on his second voyage, and de las casas quickly became swept up in the spirit of the age, one that inspired young spaniards to believe they could save souls and get rich at the same time.
00:50:23	De las casas first went to the caribbean, where he grew rich off the labor of the native peoples.
00:50:32	>> [Speaking spanish] >> in 1512 de las casas gave up his life of leisure and became he began to work tirelessly to fulfill isabella's order to patiently and lovingly bring the peoples of the new but the more he traveled throughout south america and mexico, the more convinced he became that the dream of a new world shaped by christian principles had turned into a nightmare.
00:51:27	He wrote--[speaking spanish].
00:51:32	"The cause by which the christians have been driven to kill and destroy so many, such an infinite number of souls, has been simply " finally de las casas' outrage grew so great that in 1541 he returned to spain to tell the king and his court of the brutal way the native peoples were being treated in the name of god and king.
00:52:03	Like an old testament prophet, de las casas told charles that he risked eternal damnation if the christian mission in the new world failed.
00:52:16	To charles v, whose life was dedicated to defending the one true faith, eternal damnation was perhaps the only threat capable of making him take de las casas seriously.
00:52:37	And so charles grudgingly agreed to issue what were called las nueves leyes, the new laws.
00:52:47	>> [Speaking spanish] "we do order and command that from this time forward, no cause of war or other reason, even rebellion, shall justify making a slave of any indian and it is our will that they should be treated as subjects of the crown, " but passing laws was one thing and enforcing them another.
00:53:19	In places like the yucatan peninsula, remote even from authority in mexico city, much less spain, spaniards who had grown rich from the labor of the native peoples openly even some of de las casas' fellow priests ignored the order not to abuse the indians.
00:53:41	>> Within a few decades, it becomes very clear that they haven't been able to fully eradicate--how could they?
00:53:48	Indigenous religious beliefs.
00:53:51	And how do they handle they establish um, so that same institution that had been created in spain to police the behavior of converted jews is used in the americas to treat indigenous peoples, to police their religious behavior.
00:54:12	>> Take diego de landa, maya culture and religion had flourished for more than 7 centuries in the peninsula by the time but when the bishop discovered 20 years into his mission that the maya were still mixing their rituals with christian ones, he launched an inquisition as vicious as any ever held in spain.
00:54:37	De landa kept careful records which include this statement by him.
00:54:43	[Speaking spanish] "all of the indians, being idolaters and guilty, it was not possible to proceed strictly judicially against them.
00:54:55	Without compulsion, these people will never speak the truth.
00:54:59	And thus we had no alternative " according to de landa's own records, he tortured over 4,000 indians, 158 of them to death.
00:55:20	To bartolome de las casas, a culture that constantly proclaimed its superiority, even as it used torture to spread its beliefs, was a culture filled with hypocrites.
00:55:37	In 1551 he returned to spain once again to make his ultimate stand.
00:55:45	To confront the spanish elite with its hypocrisy, de las casas took part in a 5 day debate influential men came from all over spain the very future of the empire seemed to be at stake politically, economically, and morally.
00:56:10	It was a contest between the two contrary visions that drove one was exemplified by columbus, whose tomb this is, who sailed west in search of fortune and regarded most of the people he met as a lower order of human being fit for nothing but slavery.
00:56:31	At the debate, this world view was defended by juan gines de sepulveda, one of the most important scholars of the era.
00:56:40	He argued-- [speaking spanish] "it is just that those who excel by nature rule over their and so, with perfect right, the spaniards exercised dominion over the barbarians " the other vision was embraced by de las casas, who believed that isabella meant what she said about how indigenous americans should be treated.
00:57:15	De las casas declared-- [speaking spanish] "the conversion of the indians to christianity was stated to be the principle aim of the spanish but we have hidden the fact that it is only through threats of being taken captive or killed that the indians have been brought to embrace the faith.
00:57:41	As if the son of god " >> [speaking spanish] >> at the end of the debate, the judges announced that there had been no definitive winner, leaving the ultimate decision over spanish policy to the king.
00:58:19	But for charles, more than 30 years at the helm of the empire had led to a state of stress and exhaustion, which he told his confidantes he could no at the age of 56, charles abdicated in favor of his son, who would face the ultimate choice between god and gold.
00:58:54	In 1556, at the age of 29, philip ii became the ruler of a realm that stretched from europe to the philippines, an empire on which the sun literally never set.
00:59:08	Though philip's father had been a dutiful catholic, religion for charles had in many ways been politics by another means.
00:59:16	For philip, faith came first.
00:59:24	This is the escorial, the enormous palace that philip built outside madrid to be his while many other monarchs viewed their homes as pleasure palaces, that was not the vision philip had for the escorial.
00:59:41	Juan hernandez is one of spain's leading architectural historians.
00:59:47	>> [Speaking spanish] >> one of philip's favorite paintings, which he bought to hang in the escorial, was the garden of earthly delights by hieronymus bosch.
01:00:34	Like the escorial itself, it provides a window into how philip saw the world.
01:00:41	When it came to the peoples of the new world, philip was far more concerned than his father with winning them over to catholicism and treating them but when it came to europe, philip's faith made him even more intolerant of heretics than his father.
01:01:01	After dutch protestants rebelled against his rule in bosch's homeland, the netherlands, philip launched a vicious campaign known as "the great repression" in which thousands of protestants were killed.
01:01:16	Meanwhile, philip's forces engaged in one of the bloodiest naval battles in history against the muslims.
01:01:24	Each of these old world conflicts ended in stalemate, yet fighting each one was so incredibly expensive that philip was forced to declare the spanish crown bankrupt it was only the prospect that more gold and silver would arrive from the new world that made the bankers of europe willing to continue lending to philip.
01:01:47	And in that regard, philip had ample reason to believe that god was on his side.
01:01:59	In 1545 silver was discovered here in the andes mountains in what is today bolivia.
01:02:12	From the beginning, it was clear that it was an enormously rich so rich that it had the potential to lift the spanish empire out of debt.
01:02:24	There was just one problem.
01:02:27	This silver mine, and the city of potosi that grew up around it, are located at an altitude of 13,000 feet, making potosi the highest city in the world.
01:02:42	It's a cold and forbidding place, and the spaniards of the 16th century refused african slaves also found it intolerable and staged constant revolts which resulted in their escaping into the nearby mountains.
01:02:57	The only other source of labor was the indigenous population, but the new laws expressly forbid enslaving them.
01:03:07	Suddenly, philip was faced with one of the defining choices of his life. god or gold?
01:03:16	Here is what philip decided.
01:03:20	[Speaking spanish] "given that the mine cannot be exploited using spanish laborers, since they are not willing to work in it, and african slaves cannot withstand the work owing to the coldness, I give you permission to employ " in human terms, it was a decision with disastrous consequences.
01:03:50	For the next 300 years, virtually all of the indigenous men in the region would be forced to take turns working in deadly conditions in the ever-deepening mine.
01:04:03	Soledad ari fortun is an expert on the history of potosi.
01:04:10	>> [Speaking spanish] >> but in financial terms, it was one of the shrewdest decisions in history, since potosi was, as one geologist has called it, the richest mountain in the history of the world.
01:04:59	As a result, what was a barren hillside in 1545 was transformed by 1600 into a city of 150,000, making it the largest city in the new world and more than twice as large as london.
01:05:20	As spaniards, mestizos, and indigenous peoples poured into the city, potosi became a crucible in the encounter between the new world if conquest were a good way to describe that encounter, one might expect that the native culture would have vanished long ago, destroyed by the conquerors.
01:05:38	But obviously that's not what happened.
01:05:44	Instead, native peoples today still make up more than 60% of the population of bolivia.
01:05:52	The strategy they used to survive is exemplified by how they preserved their music.
01:06:00	In parts of the new world, the small wooden guitars called lutes that the spanish brought with them displaced indigenous instruments and music.
01:06:11	But the aymara indians were not satisfied with merely becoming players of the lute.
01:06:17	Instead, they were inspired to create their own unique instrument, the charango, using the shell of the armadillo.
01:06:27	Teofilo lopez is the leader of the lopez family band.
01:06:33	>> [Speaking spanish] >> for four centuries the aymara indians have been using the charango to play and today it is still the most popular instrument in the country.
01:07:10	It is also a metaphor for indigenous identity itself, embodying its story of resistance and loss, defeat and survival.
01:07:20	>> [Singing in spanish] >> as a hub for an endless series of such encounters between old world and new, potosi would be one of the most important cities in south america for more than three centuries.
01:07:38	In spite of its remarkable size and cultural importance, potosi existed for one reason-- to produce silver.
01:07:46	this single mine high in the andes mountains produced some 35,000 tons.
01:07:54	5 billion ounces, more than existed in all the countries of europe put together.
01:08:05	The importance of potosi to the future of the spanish empire was captured by a writer of the time.
01:08:12	[Speaking spanish] "potosi has arisen in order to serve the imposing aspirations of spain.
01:08:20	It enables her to chastise the mohammedans and make " in philip's eyes, the best use he could make of the vast mountain of silver that god had given him was to crush the protestant in 1584 philip began to plan one of the most ambitious naval campaigns his goal was to conquer protestant england and simultaneously win the war in the netherlands by cutting off the support the english were offering the dutch rebels.
01:08:56	The 130 ships of the spanish armada were manned by 7,000 sailors and carried 17,000 soldiers, with tens of thousands more waiting to board a spanish victory seemed certain.
01:09:12	But when the armada reached the english channel, the smaller but faster english fleet outmaneuvered the huge spanish ships and forced them to flee for a safe harbor on the coast.
01:09:23	The english then sent burning ships in among the great wooden to avoid being set on fire, the armada had to abandon the safety of the coast.
01:09:34	And that's when nature took gale force winds began to blow the biggest spanish ships out of the channel and toward the north sea, leaving the english free to finish off the rest of the armada.
01:09:49	The battle turned out to be one of the biggest upsets in military history.
01:09:53	Between the fighting and the storm-driven destruction, some 70 ships were sunk and 15,000 of philip's men died.
01:10:05	When news of the disaster reached spain, the entire country was thrown into despair.
01:10:11	One friar working in the escorial wrote-- [speaking spanish] "it is the most notable and unhappy disaster ever to have happened in spain and one to weep for many months, there has been nothing but tears and laments throughout " it was the end of an era, one in which the kings of spain believed they had been chosen by god to rule the world.
01:10:50	Now, with the armada defeated and spain's role as the world's only superpower drawing to an end, it was a time for self and at least one person in spain was uniquely prepared for it.
01:11:22	Garcilaso de la vega left his peruvian homeland and sailed for spain in 1560, when he was since his mother was an inca princess and his father a spanish conquistador, latin americans today would call him a mestizo.
01:11:40	But garcilaso called himself el inca in honor of his noble indigenous heritage.
01:11:49	Garcilaso eventually settled here in this house in montilla because he was half indigenous american, garcilaso faced almost constant prejudice.
01:12:01	Juan casado alcaide is a biographer of garcilaso.
01:12:07	>> [Speaking spanish] >> to most spaniards, someone who is half indigenous was obviously inferior.
01:12:38	But garcilaso won spaniards over with his brilliant intellect and with his flair for telling the story of his time.
01:12:47	The longer garcilaso lived in spain, the more he became convinced that its adventures in the americas had not served ..
01:13:00	[Speaking spanish] "many who today see the wealth that peru has sent to the old world and that has now been scattered all over it realize that this flood of riches has done more harm than good and inclined its possessors and in truth, the riches of the new world have not increased the volume of useful things in this country, like food and clothes, " garcilaso had discovered the empire's dirty little secret, that the spanish people themselves had benefited very little from all that new world it was the bankers and businessmen of other countries who had grown incredibly rich.
01:13:56	In the years ahead, as gold and silver became ever scarcer in the new world, the spanish economy would enter centuries of stagnation and decline.
01:14:12	But garcilaso was just as concerned about the new world as he was about the old.
01:14:18	He realized that unless the achievements of the indigenous peoples were written down, they might be lost forever and so, garcilaso wrote his masterpiece, a book titled "royal commentaries of the incas and general history " el mas grande de los incas, pachacutec, the greatest of the inca, pachacutec, increased his empire until it was from he founded many towns in those lands, and he devoted himself to the enactment of new laws for the common good.
01:15:00	But soon after the foreigners first arrived, the incas realized that these spanish christians abominated them all as works of the devil and that, therefore, the spanish did not trouble to ask them for clear information about themselves and their history, but rather simply dismissed them and so, the incas ceased telling them the true account of their history.
01:15:30	El inca garcilasos' work tells the story of two great civilizations, and it climaxes with a celebration of both his inca and his spanish roots.
01:15:40	Garcilaso was also one of the first to realize that perhaps the most important legacy of the first 100 years of contact was neither riches nor empire, but the birth of a new culture that was neither indigenous nor spanish, but both. mestizo culture.
01:16:00	>> [Singing and chanting] >> garcilaso, like isabella and de los casas, was convinced that the only force that could unify that new culture and in the centuries that followed, the church would indeed become a dominant force in the new world.
01:16:42	Today is viernes santo, good friday in cuzco, peru.
01:16:47	Thousands of peruvians are here to commemorate jesus' crucifixion.
01:16:53	In the years after contact, the catholic church began to reshape life in much of the new world, filling its calendar with new holidays, recording its marriages, births, and deaths, and even creating a new sense of time.
01:17:09	[Bells ringing] and yet, it would be a mistake to imagine that catholicism in the n world was anything but a mestizo down the same streets where residents of cuzco once paraded with the mummies of inca emperors, they now parade with the statues of saints.
01:17:41	The ongoing conflict inevitable in a mixed religion can be seen in the way that the blending of the virgin of guadalupe with tonantzin was not an isolated instance, but a defining feature of new world catholicism.
01:17:57	For instance, this is the mountain of silver that towers this 17th century painting depicting the mountain is called "the virgin mary " in it, the virgin mary has literally morphed into the mountain, giving it her face and arms.
01:18:20	So maybe it's not the virgin after all, because the inca believed mountains like this one were home to goddesses like pachamama, the andean earth yet, this goddess of the mountain is being crowned by god the father and jesus christ and worshipped by the spanish rulers and the catholic pope.
01:18:49	It's a work of art that's essentially mestizo, neither one culture nor the other, but both.
01:18:56	And in being both, filled with tension and ambiguity.
01:19:00	Who's the more important figure pachamama or the virgin mary?
01:19:08	Great art thrives on tension, and it's hard to imagine circumstances that could produce more of it than two radically different worlds trying to haltingly and painfully figure out how to live together.
01:19:23	In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, a remarkable array of artists set about capturing the mestizo mix and the tension through the window these paintings provide, you can see the intense ongoing negotiation between the old world and the new over who is in control and who is going to survive.
01:19:52	Those negotiations have been going on ever since, of course, in religion, economics, and politics.
01:20:01	And across the centuries, the most common outcome of the negotiating has been that those with more spanish blood have been allowed to continue exploiting those indeed, the debate that bartolome de los casas undertook more than 400 years ago is still taking place.
01:20:25	>> [Speaking spanish] >> perhaps one reason the problem continues is that popular awareness of the contributions indigenous americans and mestizos have made to new world and european culture is still limited by the old stereotypes.
01:21:26	That's why it is so critical that in recent years they have begun to tell their stories to ever larger audiences.
01:21:40	An accurate understanding of the past and how it's shaped who we are is critical to forging a better future, not just for those south of the border, but north of it, here in the united states, where the fastest growing segment of the population is children of parents who have both spanish and indigenous american ancestry.
01:22:05	[Speaking spanish] so what legacy do ruby and lucia inherit from the contact between old and new, between spanish, indigenous, and african?
01:22:26	[Speaking spanish] it's a loaded question here, all of the united states was, of course, part of the new yet we in this country have our own habit of focusing mostly on the european version long before the pilgrims ever set foot on these shores, native americans and spaniards were battling over the destiny of the american but somehow that part of the history of our country and how it produced mestizo-americans like my wife, whose roots here go back more than 400 years, has almost always been left out.
01:23:11	But maybe today we're finally able to tell that story at a moment when even our president calls himself a "mutt", which, of course, is another word for mestizo.
01:23:25	A mixed history is not an easy it means literally following more than one story at the same time, multiple narratives, each one vying for the power to tell the whole story, which, of course, can't be told if any but how else can I tell ruby and lucia about their story, a story that's less about conquest than about the birth of a new culture?
01:23:51	A one-sided story that became two, and then much more than if we can find the courage to tell our children that story, then maybe the world they bequeath to their children will be a better one.
01:24:02	I'm ruben martinez.
01:24:08	>> Find out more about the new world, the old world, and the first century after contact.
01:24:14	Explore a treasure trove of insights about the history of visit "when worlds collide" at pbs.org.
01:24:38	[Captioning made possible by kcet public television] [captioned by the national captioning institute --www.ncicap.org--] >> "When worlds collide" is made possible by a major grant from the national endowment for the humanities.
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